Tag Archives: treatment

21Aug/12

Rehabilitation of thinking – A key element in maximising performance

Mindset, Pain Education, Performance, Psychology, Treatments, , , ,

The rehabilitation journey following an injury must be traveled with full commitment and completed. Usually when we talk about rehabilitation, it is the exercises that are focused upon: the movement, the task, the goal and how much to do. Nothing wrong with this of course as the training parameters are important to understand the effects of the exercise and how to subsequently progress. An aspect that is vital, yet less frequently mentioned, is the thinking both behind the activity and that of the individual undertaking the training.

Each exercise must have a meaning that needs to be explained. Full understanding of how, when and why the particular task is being undertaken is vital for full engagement, both physically and cognitively. In addition we have to consider the context of the exercise including the time of the day, the environment, the mood of the participant, level of discomfort, general health factors and other variables. Being aware of these influences and how they affect performance permits accurate assessment of the outcomes and where to focus upon for future improvement. In essence it is a learning process similar to that of learning a language or a musical instrument. Feedback plays a key role via the trainer correcting movement verbally and physically, and other means including exercising in front of a mirror.

The thinking of the participant before engaging in the exercise, during and afterwards will have an impact on success and hence learning. We can call this his or her mindset. Carol Dweck talks about a fixed mindset which describes a thought pattern underpinned by inflexible beliefs: it is how it is, this is my lot, change does not happen etc. Clearly this thinking can limit success and progression. A growth mindset on the other hand, is characterised by a belief that we can learn, change and grow. This mindset is one I encourage and seek to nurture as part of moving forwards following an injury or in progressing with a painful condition. In essence we are designed to change and adapt to our environment and circumstances. Given the right opportunity, input, motivation and timeline, we can evolve and develop healthier notions and actions for life both physically and in thought.

In summary, rehabilitation is not about simply going through the motions of certain exercises. It is about taking the opportunity to grow and develop physically and cognitively. In many cases we have to address thinking that is affecting the rehabilitation process, for example, thoughts that would be of a fixed mindset. Working upon these with strategies can and often are as important as the physical activities for optimum outcome. Our comprehensive rehabilitation programmes encompass these details so that you can progress from pain to performance.

11Jul/12

Cervical Dystonia | What can we do?

Cervical Dystonia, Dystonia, Research, Treatments, , , , ,

I see a number of cases of cervical dystonia (spasmodic torticollis) that features awkward posturing and movement of the head and neck. This can be painful and have consequences for normal activities. We rely upon being able to orientate ourselves to our environment by controlling our head and gaze direction and then responding appropriately.

Primary dystonia has no neurological or metabolic cause whereas secondary dystonia is attributable to outside factors such as physical trauma, exposure to certain medications and other neurological or metabolic diseases.

Here is a fact sheet from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke

Common treatment of cervical dystonia includes botulinum toxin injections and physiotherapy.

Modern physiotherapy for cervical dystonia at the Specialist Pain Physio Clinics

In addition to the manual techniques that are used to help ease tension and the soreness associated with spasm and tightness in the muscles, we use strategies that target the motor centres in the brain where the signals are coming from. In other words, as well as treating the symptoms, we are focusing upon the mechanisms and causes of the muscles going into spasm. The Graded Motor Imagery programme provides a way of aiming to retrain movement by targeting the adaptations that have occured in the motor system. Initially this programme was devised for complex regional pain syndrome, but since then the training has been found to help those with a range of painful problems with associated movement issues.

Typically a treatment programme includes themes that aim to develop a deep understanding of the problem(s), nourish and mobilise the body tissues, improve motor control, body sense and awareness, manage posture, increase exercise an activity tolerance and ultimately improve quality of life. We call the approach biobehavioural because it is a comprehensive way of tackling the issues and influencing factors that are unique to the individual, addressing the physical signs and symptoms as much as the underpinning beliefs and lifestyle factors that impact.

Call for appointments: 07518 445493

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Dr Marie-Helene Marion, a consultant neurologist specialising in the treatment of dystonia and movement disorders has a comprehensive blog here

Recent research papers

Behav Neurol. 2012 May 24.

Cervical dystonia: From pathophysiology to pharmacotherapy.

Patel S, Martino D.

Abstract

Background: Dystonia is a chronic disorder characterised by an aberration in the control of movement. Sustained co-contraction of opposing agonist and antagonist muscles can cause repetitive and twisting movements, or abnormal postures. Cervical dystonia (CD), often referred to as spasmodic torticollis, is a type of focal dystonia involving the muscles of the neck and sometimes the shoulders. Methods: This systematic review collates the available evidence regarding the safety and efficacy of a range of treatments for CD, focusing on their effectiveness as shown by double-blinded, randomised controlled trials. Results: Our review suggests that botulinum toxin type A (BTA), botulinum toxin type B (BTB) and trihexyphenidyl are safe and efficacious treatments for CD. Evidence shows that botulinum toxin therapies are more reliable for symptomatic relief and have fewer adverse effects than trihexyphenidyl. When comparing BTA to BTB, both are found to have similar clinical benefits, with BTA possibly having a longer duration of action and a marginally better side effect profile. BTB is also safe and probably just as efficacious a treatment in those patients who are unresponsive or have become resistant to BTA.

Discussion: The current evidence shows that the pharmacological management of CD relies on BTA and BTB, two agents with established efficacy and tolerability profiles.

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Lancet Neurol. 2002 Sep;1(5):316-25.

Classification and genetics of dystonia.

de Carvalho Aguiar PM, Ozelius LJ.

Abstract

Dystonia is a syndrome characterised by sustained muscle contractions, producing twisting, repetitive, and patterned movements, or abnormal postures. The dystonic syndromes include a large group of diseases that have been classified into various aetiological categories, such as primary, dystonia-plus, heredodegenerative, and secondary. The diverse clinical features of these disorders are reflected in the traditional clinical classification based on age at onset, distribution of symptoms, and site of onset. However, with an increased awareness of the molecular and environmental causes, the classification schemes have changed to reflect different genetic forms of dystonia. To date, at least 13 dystonic syndromes have been distinguished on a genetic basis and their loci are referred to as DYT1 to DYT13. This review focuses on the molecular and phenotypic features of the hereditary dystonias, with emphasis on recent advances.

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Mov Disord. 2002;17 Suppl 3:S49-62.

Pathophysiology of dystonia: a neuronal model.

Vitek JL.

Abstract

Dystonia has commonly been thought to represent a disorder of basal ganglia function. Although long considered a hyperkinetic movement disorder, the evidence to support such a classification was based on the presence of excessive involuntary movement, not on physiological data. Only recently, with the return of surgical procedures using microelectrode guidance for the treatment of dystonia, has electrophysiological data demonstrated an alteration in mean discharge rate, somatosensory responsiveness and the pattern of neuronal activity in the basal ganglia thalamocortical motor circuit. Previous models of dystonia suggested that reduced mean discharge rates in the globus pallidus internus (GPi) led to unopposed increases in activity in the thalamocortical circuit that precipitated the development of involuntary movement associated with dystonia. This model has subsequently been modified given the clear improvement in dystonic symptoms following lesions in the GPi, a procedure that is associated with a further reduction in pallidal output. The improvement in dystonia following pallidal lesions is difficult to reconcile with the “rate” hypothesis for hypokinetic and hyperkinetic movement disorders and has led to the development of alternative models that, in addition to rate, incorporate changes in pattern, somatosensory responsiveness and degree of synchronization of neuronal activity. Present models of dystonia, however, must not only take these changes into account but must reconcile these changes with the reported changes in cortical excitability reported with transcranial magnetic stimulation, the changes in metabolic activity in cortical and subcortical structures documented by positron emission tomography (PET), and the alterations in spinal and brainstem reflexes. A model incorporating these changes together with the reported changes in neuronal activity in the basal ganglia and thalamus is presented.

21Apr/12

The importance of the first minutes, hours and days of an injury

Pain Education, Sports Injuries, Treatments, ,

Sustaining an injury is commonplace in sport. What happens in the first few minutes, hours and days can play a big part in how well we recover. The injury needs to be diagnosed and understood, for example an ankle twisting beyond the normal range of movement that results in a sprained ligament. As important is our response to the injury, what action we take and what we think about it. This blog explores these points with the aim of clarifying good practice in the first instance of an injury.

Our response to an injury includes how we protect the area, how we communicate that we are injured and the thoughts going on in our head. All are influential. How we protect a new injury is often by holding it, perhaps rubbing the area, limping, applying a bandage or using a set of crutches. This is very useful as the healing process begins immediately and the tissues need this protection to enable this activity. Communicating our pain and injury is individual. Some will cry out, use a facial expression, raise an arm to call the bench for help and others will suppress the urge to call out or use other ways of minimising body language. However, it is often difficult to do this with the acute pain of a freshly sprained ligament or strained muscle. Finally, the thoughts running through our head will vary but could include ‘What have I done?’, ‘What does this mean to my career in football?’ or ‘Not again!’. These thoughts are really important as they will be the conscious reflection of our beliefs about the situation. Our beliefs in turn, drive behaviours and consequently what we do in our injured state. In essence, what we do early on can impact upon the course of the recovery.

In the early stages, having a good understanding of what has happened, what has been injured and the extent of the injury is important from a reassurance viewpoint. Often the responses of the body to an injury are normal yet unpleasant. We need to know what is normal and what may not be normal so that the latter can be dealt with effectively. We also like to know what it is that needs to be done. For these questions to be answered we make a prompt visit to a healthcare professional. Rapid pain relief helps to take a positive stance on managing the early stages and indeed, high levels of uncontrolled pain can lead to beliefs and behaviours that are unhelpful. This is a pertinent point that I would like to emphasise. Gaining a realistic and accurate view of the situation with a good management plan promotes adaptive behaviours and responses that means you are doing everything that you should to support the healing and recovery. Developing fears of movement, catastrophising about the pain and excessively worrying about the injury usually lead to persisting problems. Clearly the former is a better scenario.

In summary, we must think about the early stages of injury management and have a clear strategy. This must include a good explanation of the problem, relevant investigations if required, a management plan that works with the healing process and monitoring of any thinking that could impact upon one’s choices.

04Apr/12

Reconceptualising pain for better treatment – a revolution? A revelation?

Chronic pain, Pain, Pain Education, , ,

Traditionally pain is understood to be an unpleasant experience in the body where a problem exists, and is something to be got rid of as quickly as possible. The so-called ‘biomedical model’ considers which structures require treatment or surgery, stopping at the tissues as the cause of pain. This paradigm has been challenged over the years and rightly so in the light of recent research. Many studies have revealed the underlying physiology within the nervous system, and in particular the brain, and the role of other body systems such as the immune system and endocrine system (hormones) in pain. Understanding that pain is a normal response to a perceived threat has helped mould new treatments and ways of dealing with pain.

The most pertinent discovery and emergent shift in thinking came when it was realised that pain is a brain experience. This came via studies of the brain but also by looking at why phantom limb pain exists and how people present with a range of injuries and such varied levels of reported pain. There are many stories of people suffering severe physical injury yet experience little or no pain at the time.

The fact that we know pain is a brain experience has helped us to understand the many influences upon the pain, especially one’s emotional state. For instance, we know that the danger signals that are sent by the body to the brain via the spinal cord, travel to the emotional centres of the brain to try and give some meaning to the pain. These signals reach the brain and receive scrutiny to work out the level of threat, and this can vary enormously depending upon a range of factors. On activating a widespread group of neurons termed the ’pain matrix’, the output from the brain, a response, can be the pain experience. Knowing that there are many parts of the brain involved has meant that there are now a range of approaches that can tackle the problem of pain.

We are now far more optimistic about treating pain. This is not just with medication, which does have a role when used wisely, but with a range of contemporary treatments, strategies and techniques that address the underpinning mechanisms at a tissue level, spinal cord level and a brain level alongside beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that can be moulded to change the pain. The term used to describe the contemporary approach to pain is ’biopsychosocial’, implying a role for the overlapping biological, psychological and social factors that must be addressed.

12Feb/12

Pain Mechanisms – what underpins our pain?

Chronic pain, Neuropathic pain, Pain, Pain Education, Treatments, Understanding pain, , , ,

Understanding pain mechanisms is the key to effective treatment. The mechanisms that have been studied, written about in science journals and discussed with patients include nociceptive pain, inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain and central sensitisation. Elucidating which are playing a role in the patient’s experience allows the doctor to prescribe the right medication and the modern physical therapist to address the issues of pain in a biopsychosocial manner. I will now clarify the latter point.

In taking a detailed history, observing patterns of movement and protection, assessing the state of the nervous system and health of the body systems, understanding behaviours and the beliefs behind them and learning of the influences upon the individual’s pain experience, one can know about the likely pain mechanisms underpinning the experience. From here the treatment strategies can be chosen to target these mechanisms. For example, top-down approaches for central sensitisation focus on the change in the properties of the central nervous system. The interventions themselves are observant of the amplification that occurs in the spinal cord and higher centres and would seek to dampen the responses with input to the brain that is perceived as normal or non-threatening. This could include sensory stimulation or movements outside of the receptive field, education to reduce fear of movement or imagery to name but a few. Inflammatory pain can also be treated with a top-down approach but local tissue based strategies would also be used. Just to note that the separation of the ‘top end’ (brain and spinal cord) from ‘bottom end’ (tissues) is really a false dichotomy as all conscious experiences are from the brain including what we see and what we feel.

Stephen McMahon and David Bennett, both experts in the field of pain science from King’s College London, produced a poster that describes these mechanisms – click here to visit the page in Nature Reviews Neuroscience. This is what they say about it:

Pain is an unpleasant sensation resulting from the intricate interplay between sensory and cognitive mechanisms. Chronic pain, resulting from disease or injury, affects nearly every fifth person in the Western world, constituting an enormous burden for the individual and society. Sensitization of pain signalling systems is a key feature of chronic pain and results in normally non-painful stimuli eliciting pain. Such sensory changes can occur not just at the sites of injury, but in surrounding normal tissues. This and other observations suggest that sensitization occurs within the CNS as well as within nociceptor terminals. Here we consider the consequences of noxious stimulus applied to our unfortunate builder’s hand, from sensory transduction to pain perception. We describe the structural and functional elements present at different levels of the nociceptive system, as well as some of the changes occurring in chronic pain states. Although our poster highlights a flow of information from the periphery to the CNS, it should be noted that higher brain centres exert both inhibitory and facilitatory controls on lower ones. The challenge for the next decade will be to effectively translate this knowledge into the development of novel analgesic agents for better pain relief.

11Feb/12

Manual therapy, pain and the immune system

Back pain, Chronic low back pain, Chronic pain, Complex regional pain syndrome, Joint pain, Low back pain, Neuropathic pain, Pain, Pain Education, Research, Treatments, , , , , , ,

As a physiotherapist I frequently use my hands to treat the joints and tissues. It comes with the territory, everyone expects hands-on therapy and it does helps to reduce tension and pain. Most likely, the pain relief from joint mobilisation is due to descending mechanisms that include those that are powered by serotonin and noradrenaline (see here). This is very useful to know as it tells us about the effects of passively moving joints and importantly permits wise selection of techniques to target the pain mechanisms. Building on the knowledge base, two very recent studies have identified some extremely interesting results.

Firstly, Martins et al. (2011) found that ankle joint mobilisation reduced pain in a neuropathic pain model in rats along with seeing the regeneration of nerve tissue and inhibition of glial cell activation (a blog will be coming soon that discusses the immune system in pain states) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Secondly, Crane et al. (2012) looked at how massage helps reduce the pain of exercise-induced muscle damage in young males. Taking muscle biopsies they found that massaged subjects demonstrated attenuation of proinflammatory cytokines, key players in sensitisation. It was also noted that massage had no effect upon metabolites such as lactate – see below.

More research into the mechanisms that underpin the effects of hands-on therapy is needed despite the advancements in our understanding. The ability to focus treatment upon this understanding can only develop our effectiveness in treating pain. I am very optimistic about the movement forwards in pain and basic science, and how this can be applied  in our thinking with individual patients. The language is changing with the words ‘treatment’ being used rather than ‘management’, the latter of which can imply that one has reached their limit of improvement. This is exciting and more importantly, realistic when one considers therapies such as the graded motor imagery. We do not have treatments that work for all pains but we do have brains and body systems that are flexible, dynamic and can change if given the opportunity, the right stimulation within the right context on the background of good understanding. It is our duty to keep this rolling onwards and thinking hard about how to best use the findings such as those highlighted in this blog.

Pain. 2011 Nov;152(11):2653-61. Epub 2011 Sep 8.

Ankle joint mobilization reduces axonotmesis-induced neuropathic pain and glial activation in the spinal cord and enhances nerve regeneration in rats.

Martins DF, Mazzardo-Martins L, Gadotti VM, Nascimento FP, Lima DA, Speckhann B, Favretto GA, Bobinski F, Cargnin-Ferreira E, Bressan E, Dutra RC, Calixto JB, Santos AR.

Source

Laboratório de Neurobiologia da Dor e Inflamação, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.

Abstract

An important issue in physical rehabilitation is how to protect from or to reduce the effects of peripheral nerve injury. In the present study, we examined whether ankle joint mobilization (AJM) would reduce neuropathic pain and enhance motor functional recovery after nerve injury. In the axonotmesis model, AJM during 15 sessions every other day was conducted in rats. Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia and motor performance deficit were measured for 5 weeks. After 5 weeks, we performed morphological analysis and quantified the immunoreactivity for CD11b/c and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), markers of glial activation, in the lumbar spinal cord. Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia and motor performance deficit were found in the Crush+Anesthesia (Anes) group (P<0.001), which was significantly decreased after AJM (P<0.001). In the morphological analysis, the Crush+Anes group presented reduced myelin sheath thickness (P<0.05), but the AJM group presented enhanced myelin sheath thickness (P<0.05). Peripheral nerve injury increased the immunoreactivity for CD11b/c and GFAP in the spinal cord (P<0.05), and AJM markedly reduced CD11b/c and GFAP immunoreactivity (P<0.01). These results show that AJM in rats produces an antihyperalgesic effect and peripheral nerve regeneration through the inhibition of glial activation in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These findings suggest new approaches for physical rehabilitation to protect from or reduce the effects of nerve injury.

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Sci Transl Med. 2012 Feb 1;4(119):119ra13.

Massage therapy attenuates inflammatory signaling after exercise-induced muscle damage.

Crane JD, Ogborn DI, Cupido C, Melov S, Hubbard A, Bourgeois JM, Tarnopolsky MA.

Source

Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada.

Abstract

Massage therapy is commonly used during physical rehabilitation of skeletal muscle to ameliorate pain and promote recovery from injury. Although there is evidence that massage may relieve pain in injured muscle, how massage affects cellular function remains unknown. To assess the effects of massage, we administered either massage therapy or no treatment to separate quadriceps of 11 young male participants after exercise-induced muscle damage. Muscle biopsies were acquired from the quadriceps (vastus lateralis) at baseline, immediately after 10 min of massage treatment, and after a 2.5-hour period of recovery. We found that massage activated the mechanotransduction signaling pathways focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), potentiated mitochondrial biogenesis signaling [nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α)], and mitigated the rise in nuclear factor κB (NFκB) (p65) nuclear accumulation caused by exercise-induced muscle trauma. Moreover, despite having no effect on muscle metabolites (glycogen, lactate), massage attenuated the production of the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) and reduced heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) phosphorylation, thereby mitigating cellular stress resulting from myofiber injury. In summary, when administered to skeletal muscle that has been acutely damaged through exercise, massage therapy appears to be clinically beneficial by reducing inflammation and promoting mitochondrial biogenesis.

18Jan/12

Pain – some things you may not have realised

Neuroscience, Pain, Pain Education, Pain Psychology, Rehabilitation, Treatments, Understanding pain, , , ,

Pain is multidimensional. Pain is 100% produced by the brain in response to a perceived threat. The brain allocates a location using the cortical maps, hence why we feel pain in our backs or knees. The brain tries to make sense of the situation, scrutinising what is going on on the basis of past experience (learning) and comparing to the information being received from ALL body systems. This is the reason for the term ‘multisystem output’ as a way of describing what is happening when we are in pain.

The most obvious reason why the pain worsens is that we move, exercise or sit for too long. All of these activities are ‘physical’, asking the tissues to take the strain either rapidly or gradually. On reaching a certain level of strain, lower than normal in cases of sensitivity, nerves start sending danger signals to the spinal cord. From the spinal cord messages are relayed to the brain, still on the subject of danger. Theses are not pain signals. It is only when the brain interprets the information as threatening that the experience of pain is produced – an output from the brain. This is typical in acute situations when the injury or problem is new. The pain is vital, useful and motivates action.

A key point to understand is that the brain does not actually need the tissues to produce pain. Think about phantom limb pain. There is no limb. There are no tissues. But it hurts. It seriously hurts in may cases. So, there are other ‘triggers’ for pain besides actually moving or asking the tissues (muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones etc) to take the strain. Common ‘non-tissue’ circumstances that can amplify pain include stress, circadian rhythms, menstrual cycle, fatigue and thoughts. I think that to take this on board is an enlightening experience. To understand that your pain can be as a result of other reasons besides what you are doing physically can help to explain why it hurts at times when you have not done anything differently and you really cannot comprehend why the pain has increased.

A further influential player in our experiences is vision. I’m really interested in this as the process of ‘seeing’ is much aligned to the way pain is experienced. Information is received by the brain via the optic nerve. The brain must make sense of this data and create a credible outcome, again very much using past experience to judge the present. We still see a bird in his cage despite slender lines dividing his body (the struts of the cage). We don’t see ‘slices’ of a bird. Also consider optical illusions. A great deal of work has been done looking at the use of vision for therapeutic effect, i.e. the graded motor imagery programme. Clearly the mirror box is creating the illusion that the affected side is moving and appearing to be normal. Imagined movements requires us to ‘see’ and feel movement although we are keeping very still. The premotor cortex is very active during these imagined movements, and this part of the brain is involved in the production of pain.

What we are seeing is deemed to be an illusion in some quarters. We all have different experiences and backgrounds. Our beliefs about life and ourselves vary. This will influence what we ‘see’. If you have just watched a scary movie and then go outside into the dark to put the rubbish out, a shadow could be ‘seen’ as something more dangerous than if you have just laughed at a comedy show. Also consider when we see someone injure themselves, again on TV or watching sport. We often wince, grab our corresponding body part or take some other defensive action. Our brains are interpreting someone else’s danger and imprinting this onto our experience, perhaps as a way of helping us to learn that it is dangerous to be in their situation. This is likely due to the mirror neuron network and that when we watch someone else move or position themselves, our virtual body that exists in the brain mimics that position. There are also aspects of empathy in sharing someone’s pain. But, if that position is ‘threatening’ to our brain, we will hurt.

What do we do about that? We use strategies to desensitise and habituate, similar to dealing with any fear. The modern way of tackling pain states, especially those that persist, is using a biobehavioral approach. This means that as well as addressing tissue health with movement and treatment, we must concurrently target the brain and other systems that are involved in the pain experience, e.g. immune, endocrine. It is called ‘top-down’ – ‘bottom-up’. Top-down referring to the brain and our beliefs, understanding, thoughts, how the brain is controlling movement and protecting us; bottom-up signifying the need to nourish the tissues with movement. These exist on a spectrum and both are addressed in a contemporary biopsychosocial treatment programme – see www.specialistpainphysio.com/treatment

Below are some interesting abstracts in relation to this blog:

Pain. 2010 Feb;148(2):268-74. Epub 2009 Dec 11.

Pain sensation evoked by observing injury in others.

Osborn J, Derbyshire SW.

Source

School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, UK.

Abstract

Observing someone else in pain produces a shared emotional experience that predominantly activates brain areas processing the emotional component of pain. Occasionally, however, sensory areas are also activated and there are anecdotal reports of people sharing both the somatic and emotional components of someone else’s pain. Here we presented a series of images or short clips depicting noxious events to a large group of normal controls. Approximately one-third of this sample reported an actual noxious somatic experience in response to one or more of the images or clips. Ten of these pain responders were subsequently recruited and matched with 10 non-responders to take part in an fMRI study. The subjects were scanned while observing static images of noxious events. In contrast with emotional images not containing noxious events the responders activated emotional and sensory brain regions associated with pain while the non-responders activated very little. These findings provide convincing evidence that some people can readily experience both the emotional and sensory components of pain during observation of other’s pain resulting in a shared physical pain experience.

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J Cogn Neurosci. 2007 Jan;19(1):42-58.

The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal.

Lamm C, Batson CD, Decety J.

Source

INSERM Unit 280, France.

Abstract

Whether observation of distress in others leads to empathic concern and altruistic motivation, or to personal distress and egoistic motivation, seems to depend upon the capacity for self-other differentiation and cognitive appraisal. In this experiment, behavioral measures and event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging were used to investigate the effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal while participants observed the facial expression of pain resulting from medical treatment. Video clips showing the faces of patients were presented either with the instruction to imagine the feelings of the patient (“imagine other”) or to imagine oneself to be in the patient’s situation (“imagine self”). Cognitive appraisal was manipulated by providing information that the medical treatment had or had not been successful. Behavioral measures demonstrated that perspective-taking and treatment effectiveness instructions affected participants’ affective responses to the observed pain. Hemodynamic changes were detected in the insular cortices, anterior medial cingulate cortex (aMCC), amygdala, and in visual areas including the fusiform gyrus. Graded responses related to the perspective-taking instructions were observed in middle insula, aMCC, medial and lateral premotor areas, and selectively in left and right parietal cortices. Treatment effectiveness resulted in signal changes in the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex, in the ventromedial orbito-frontal cortex, in the right lateral middle frontal gyrus, and in the cerebellum. These findings support the view that humans’ responses to the pain of others can be modulated by cognitive and motivational processes, which influence whether observing a conspecific in need of help will result in empathic concern, an important instigator for helping behavior.

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Hum Brain Mapp. 2009 Oct;30(10):3227-37.

Empathic neural responses to others’ pain are modulated by emotional contexts.

Han S, Fan Y, Xu X, Qin J, Wu B, Wang X, Aglioti SM, Mao L.

Source

Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People’s Republic of China. shan@pku.edu.cn

Abstract

Recent brain imaging studies indicate that empathy for pain relies upon both the affective and/or the sensorimotor nodes of the pain matrix, and empathic neural responses are modulated by stimulus reality, personal experience, and affective link with others. The current work investigated whether and how empathic neural responses are modulated by emotional contexts in which painful stimulations are perceived. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we first showed that perceiving a painful stimulation (needle penetration) applied to a face with neutral expression induced activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) relative to nonpainful stimulation (Q-tip touch). However, when observation of the painful stimuli delivered to a neutral face was intermixed with observation of painful or happy faces, the ACC activity decreased while the activity in the face area of the secondary somatosensory cortex increased to the painful stimulation. Moreover, the secondary somatosensory activity associated with the painful stimulation decreased when the painful stimulation was applied to faces with happy and painful expressions. The findings suggest that observing painful stimuli in an emotional context weakens affective responses but increases sensory responses to perceived pain and implies possible interactions between the affective and sensory components of the pain matrix during empathy for pain.

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Neuron. 2007 Aug 2;55(3):377-91.

The cerebral signature for pain perception and its modulation.

Tracey I, Mantyh PW.

Source

Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain, Clinical Neurology and Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, Oxford University, OX3 9DU Oxford, England, UK. irene@fmrib.ox.ac.uk

Abstract

Our understanding of the neural correlates of pain perception in humans has increased significantly since the advent of neuroimaging. Relating neural activity changes to the varied pain experiences has led to an increased awareness of how factors (e.g., cognition, emotion, context, injury) can separately influence pain perception. Tying this body of knowledge in humans to work in animal models of pain provides an opportunity to determine common features that reliably contribute to pain perception and its modulation. One key system that underpins the ability to change pain intensity is the brainstem’s descending modulatory network with its pro- and antinociceptive components. We discuss not only the latest data describing the cerebral signature of pain and its modulation in humans, but also suggest that the brainstem plays a pivotal role in gating the degree of nociceptive transmission so that the resultant pain experienced is appropriate for the particular situation of the individual.

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Neuroimage. 2009 Sep;47(3):987-94. Epub 2009 May 28.

The influence of negative emotions on pain: behavioral effects and neural mechanisms.

Wiech K, Tracey I.

Source

Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headley Way, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK. kwiech@fmrib.ox.ac.uk

Abstract

The idea that pain can lead to feelings of frustration, worry, anxiety and depression seems obvious, particularly if it is of a chronic nature. However, there is also evidence for the reverse causal relationship in which negative mood and emotion can lead to pain or exacerbate it. Here, we review findings from studies on the modulation of pain by experimentally induced mood changes and clinical mood disorders. We discuss possible neural mechanisms underlying this modulatory influence focusing on the periaqueductal grey (PAG), amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and anterior insula as key players in both, pain and affective processing.

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Disclaimer: this blog is for informational purposes only. If you are concerned or unsure about your pain or condition, you must consult with your GP or a health professional.

19Dec/11

Healthy tissues in 1-2-3

Chronic low back pain, Chronic pain, Complex regional pain syndrome, Dysmenorrhoea, Exercise, Fibromyalgia, Functional Pain Syndromes, Low back pain, Neck pain, Pain Education, Rehabilitation, Treatments, Uncategorized, Understanding pain, , , , , , , ,

The simple fact is that our tissues need movement to be healthy. By tissues I am referring to muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, fascia and skin. This does not need to be extreme movement but it must be regular and purposeful. Even without pathology, pain or an injury it is vital that the tissues are moved consistently throughout the day. It is likely that if you are recovering from a pain state, this movement will need to be ‘little and often’ to follow the principle of ‘motion is lotion’. I love this phrase. It was coined by the NOI Group guys and I use it frequently. At the moment I a considering some other phrases with similar meanings. If anyone has any suggestions please do comment below.

There are many types of movement from simple stretching to walking and more structured exercise such as yoga.  For convenience I talk to patients about the ‘themes’ of the treatment programme. In relation to movement there are three themes 1-2-3: specific exercises to re-train normal movement and control of movement, general exercise and the self-care strategies to be used throughout the day.

The specific exercises could include re-learning to walk normally, to re-establish normal control of the ankle or to concurrently develop confidence such as in bending forwards in cases of back pain. Normal control of movement is a fundamental part of recovery. When the information from the tissues to the brain is accurate, there is a clear view on what is happening, menaing that the next movement is efficient and so on.

General exercise is important for our health in body and mind. As well as reducing risk of a number of diseases, our brains benefit hugely from regular exercise. We release chemicals such as serotonin that make us feel good, endorphins that ease pain and BDNF that works like a miracle grow for brain cells. Gradually increasing exercise levels is a part of the treatment programme for all of these reasons.

Regularly punctuating static positions with movement nourishes the tissues and the brain’s representation of the body. The tissues will tighten and stiffen when they remain in one position for a long period of time, and more so when there is pathology or pain. Often there is already overactivity in the muscular system when we are in pain as part of the way the brain defends the body. This overactivity leads to muscle soreness that can be eased with consistent movement.

These three simple measure are behaviours. Behaviours are based on our belief system and therefore we need to understand why it is so important to move and re-establish normal control of movement as part of recovering from an injury or pain state. This includes tackling any issues around fear of movement and hypervigilance towards painful stimuli from the body. Our treatment programmes address these factors comprehensively, employing the biopsychosocial model of care and the latest neuroscience based knowledge of pain.

Email richmond@specialistpainphysio.com for more information about our treatment programmes or to book an appointment.

09Dec/11

Mindfulness

Mindfulness, Neuroscience, Pain, Pain Education, Stress, Treatments, , , , , , , , , , ,

Mindfulness has grown in popularity over recent years, and for good reason. Those who regularly practice mindful meditation and mindfulness on a day-to-day basis will tell you about their clarity of thought, their sense of ease and their good physical health. The practice is recommended by NICE for depression as well as the frequent teaching of mindfulness as a way to deal with pain.

At the clinic, I encourage mindful practice to help the individual be released from the pull of negative and unhelpful thinking about pain. We all have thoughts. This is the action of the mind and is a normal process. Automatic thoughts pop into our head and trigger emotional and physical responses–think about a waxy, yellow lemon resting upon a plate; you take a knife and cut into the rind, releasing the citrus odour as you divide the lemon in two, the pieces rolling away from the blade; you further cut the two halves into quarter segments, each time triggering a small burst of juice into the air around; imagine taking one segment and gently placing it into the front of your mouth; what are you experiencing? Thoughts change our physiology because our brains respond to thinking or imagining, just as if we are present. This is why it can hurt when we watch someone else move their body in a way that would be painful for us.

Automatic thoughts are just that. How we respond next we can decide. By being observant of our thoughts we can avoid following an automatic thought with another thought and another that lead to persisting physiological responses and emotions that are unpleasant and unhelpful. In particular those thougths that often recur and create unease and anxiety. They are simply thoughts. They are not us and they are not reality. They are just thoughts. But, they can be powerful unless we can find a way to be observant, non-judgmental, aware and present. That ‘way’ can be mindfulness.

Here are some great people talking about mindfulness and meditation

 

There has been and continues to be a great deal of work looking at mindfulness and how it may work. The Oxford Mindfulness Centre (OMC) undertakes research and provides training.
‘The OMC Team does ground-breaking clinical and neuroscience research on mindfulness. It assesses the efficacy of different forms of mindfulness practice for different types of problem, and is building up a peer-reviewed body of knowledge about what forms of mindfulness intervention best suits which type of person.’
A list of the OMC publications is available here

For further information on our use of mindfulness for pain, please email richmond@specialistpainphysio.com

09Dec/11

Top 3 recommended books

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These three titles I frequently recommend to patients to help develop the necessary deeper understanding of pain, stress and the role of the mind in physical health. They are all extremely well written and designed to educate to promote change towards more healthy behaviours. This sits exactly with my approach to physiotherapy for painful conditions that are complex, chronic or often both.

Painful Yarns by Lorimer Moseley

‘Moseley is pain management’s answer to James Herriot. This book capture that illusive ability to both educate and entertain’. Dr Micheal Thacker, Pain Sciences Program, Kings College London

‘I love a good story…..but the best thing was that when the stories were compared to how pain works, it made sense’. Dimos, lorry driver with chronic back pain

Available from NOIgroup 01904 737919

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Why zebras don’t get ulcers by Robert Sapolsky


Now in a third edition, Robert M. Sapolsky’s acclaimed and successful Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers features new chapters on how stress affects sleep and addiction, as well as new insights into anxiety and personality disorder and the impact of spirituality on managing stress. As Sapolsky explains, most of us do not lie awake at night worrying about whether we have leprosy or malaria. Instead, the diseases we fear – and the ones that plague us now – are illnesses brought on by the slow accumulation of damage, such as heart disease and cancer. When we worry or experience stress, our body turns on the same physiological responses that an animal’s does, but we do not resolve conflict in the same way – through fighting or fleeing. Over time, this activation of a stress response makes us literally sick. Combining cutting-edge research with a healthy dose of good humour and practical advice, Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers explains how prolonged stress causes or intensifies a range of physical and mental afflictions, including depression, ulcers, colitis, heart disease, and more. It also provides essential guidance to controlling our stress responses. This new edition promises to be the most comprehensive and engaging one yet.

Available from Amazon here

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Mindfulness by Mark Williams & Danny Penman

‘If you want to free yourself from anxiety and stress, and feel truly at ease with yourself, then read this book.’ –Ruby Wax

‘You would do well to put yourself in the experienced hands of Mark Williams and Danny Penman, and give yourself over to their guidance and to the programme that they map out.’ –Jon Kabat-Zinn

‘Want a happier, more content life? I highly recommend the down-to-earth methods you*ll find in ‘Mindfulness’. Professor Mark Williams and Dr. Danny Penman have teamed up to give us scientifically grounded techniques we can apply in the midst of our everyday challenges and catastrophes’ –Daniel Goleman, Author of ‘Emotional Intelligence’

‘Peace can’t be achieved in the outside world unless we have peace on the inside. Mark Williams and Danny Penman’s book gives us this peace’ –Goldie Hawn

‘Want a happier, more content life? I highly recommend the down-to-earth methods you’ll find in ‘Mindfulness’. Professor Mark Williams and Dr. Danny Penman have teamed up to give us scientifically grounded techniques we can apply in the midst of our everyday challenges and catastrophes’ –Daniel Goleman, Author of ‘Emotional Intelligence’

Available from Amazon here